Mental health is defined by the World Health Organization as “a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community” (World Health Organization, 2005). Therefore, mental health is more than the absence of psychopathology and includes the concept of well-being. Often used definitions of well-being are a high level of positive affect and happiness, a positive evaluation of life satisfaction (Diener et al., 2018) or feelings of thriving, positive functioning, and positive judgments about the meaning and purpose of an individual’s life (Ryff, 1989). Feelings of well-being and happiness have been consistently associated with less mental illness and longer and healthier lives (Diener et al., 2017; Greenspoon & Saklofske, 2001; Steptoe, 2019; Zaninotto & Steptoe, 2019), although the direction of causation is not clear yet (Rohrer & Lucas, 2020).
Furthermore, well-being is strongly related to the mental health outcome after the experience of stress, i.e. resilience (Bajaj & Pande, 2016; Fredrickson et al., 2003; Hu et al., 2015; Satici, 2016). Resilience is often conceptualized as the absence of psychopathological symptoms after the experience of stressful life events (e.g. Amstadter et al., 2014; Van der Werff et al., 2013; van Harmelen et al., 2020). In life, everyone is exposed to stressful life events, either personal or worldwide. Resilience is the constructive and most common response to these life events (Galatzer-Levy et al., 2018). Resilient people adapt relatively quickly and are quickly back to their baseline levels of mental health, whereas less resilient people do not cope well and are at risk for developing chronic or long-term adverse effects, such as low well-being, depressive symptoms, or other psychopathologies.
In a previous study, we replicated the strong relation (r=0.50) and reported a large overlap between resilience and well-being (de Vries et al., 2021). In a bivariate twin model, the genetic correlation between resilience and well-being was 0.71 (95% CI: 0.70-0.71), and the environmental correlation was close to unity, 0.93 (95% CI: 0.86-0.98), indicating a large overlap in the genetic and environmental factors underlying resilience and well-being.
The strong phenotypic, genetic, and environmental correlations between well-being and resilience suggests a partly overlapping etiology, which sometimes leads to the claim that wellbeing is resilience and that the same trait is assessed but with a different name.
To further investigate the relation, (genetic) overlap and differences between resilience and well-being, we will perform molecular genetic analyses in the current study. First, we will perform a GWAS on UK Biobank data to investigate the genetic variants related to resilience and compare those to the genetic variants related to happiness based on the UKB GWAS of Baselmans and Bartels (2018).
Next, we will apply the GWAS-by-subtraction method (Demange et al., 2021) using the UKB happiness GWAS and our UKB resilience GWAS to directly investigate the overlap between happiness and resilience. Subtracting the resilience GWAS from the happiness will lead to a GWAS of “pure happiness”, by removing genetic variants associated with resilience.
In follow-up analyses, we will investigate and compare the genetic variants associated with resilience, happiness, and “pure happiness” using functional annotation, gene-mapping, and gene-based tests and we will compute genetic correlations with a range of phenotypes (see Analyses below for more details). These results will lead to more knowledge on the overlap and distinction between well-being and resilience.

References:
Amstadter, A. B., Myers, J. M., & Kendler, K. S. (2014). Psychiatric resilience: Longitudinal twin study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 205(4), 275–280. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.113.130906
Bajaj, B., & Pande, N. (2016). Mediating role of resilience in the impact of mindfulness on life satisfaction and affect as indices of subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 93, 63–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.005
Baselmans, B. M. L., & Bartels, M. (2018). A genetic perspective on the relationship between eudaimonic –and hedonic well-being. Scientific Reports, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-32638-1
de Vries, L. P., Baselmans, B. M. L., Luykx, J. J., de Zeeuw, E. L., Minică, C., de Geus, E. J. C., Vinkers, C. H., & Bartels, M. (2021). Genetic evidence for a large overlap and potential bidirectional causal effects between resilience and well-being. Neurobiology of Stress, 14, 100315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100315
Demange, P. A., Malanchini, M., Mallard, T. T., Biroli, P., Cox, S. R., Grotzinger, A. D., Tucker-Drob, E. M., Abdellaoui, A., Arseneault, L., van Bergen, E., Boomsma, D. I., Caspi, A., Corcoran, D. L., Domingue, B. W., Harris, K. M., Ip, H. F., Mitchell, C., Moffitt, T. E., Poulton, R., … Nivard, M. G. (2021). Investigating the genetic architecture of noncognitive skills using GWAS-by-subtraction. Nature Genetics. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-020-00754-2
Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Oishi, S. (2018). Advances and Open Questions in the Science of Subjective Well-Being. Collabra: Psychology, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.115
Diener, E., Pressman, S. D., Hunter, J., & Delgadillo-Chase, D. (2017). If, Why, and When Subjective Well-Being Influences Health, and Future Needed Research. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 9(2), 133–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12090
Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What Good Are Positive Emotions in Crises? A Prospective Study of Resilience and Emotions Following the Terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 365. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.365
Galatzer-Levy, I. R., Huang, S. H., & Bonanno, G. A. (2018). Trajectories of resilience and dysfunction following potential trauma: A review and statistical evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 63, 41–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.05.008
Greenspoon, P. J., & Saklofske, D. H. (2001). Toward an integration of subjective well-being and psychopathology. Social Indicators Research, 54(1), 81–108. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007219227883
Hu, T., Zhang, D., & Wang, J. (2015). A meta-analysis of the trait resilience and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.039
Rohrer, J. M., & Lucas, R. E. (2020). Causal Effects of Well-Being on Health : It ’ s Complicated. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/wgbe4
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
Satici, S. A. (2016). Psychological vulnerability, resilience, and subjective well-being: The mediating role of hope. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, 102, 68–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.057
Steptoe, A. (2019). Happiness and Health. Annual Review of Public Health, 40, 339–359. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-044150
Van der Werff, S. J. A., Pannekoek, J. N., Veer, I. M., van Tol, M. J., Aleman, A., Veltman, D. J., Zitman, F. G., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., Elzinga, B. M., & van der Wee, N. J. A. (2013). Resilience to childhood maltreatment is associated with increased resting-state functional connectivity of the salience network with the lingual gyrus. Child Abuse and Neglect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.07.008
van Harmelen, A.-L., Blakemore, S. J., Goodyer, I. M., & Kievit, R. A. (2020). The Interplay Between Adolescent Friendship Quality and Resilient Functioning Following Childhood and Adolescent Adversity. Adversity and Resilience Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-020-00027-1
World Health Organization. (2005). Promoting Mental Health: Concepts, Emerging Evidence, Practice.
Zaninotto, P., & Steptoe, A. (2019). English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69892-2_335-1
Amstadter, A. B., Myers, J. M., & Kendler, K. S. (2014). Psychiatric resilience: Longitudinal twin study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 205(4), 275–280. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.113.130906
Bajaj, B., & Pande, N. (2016). Mediating role of resilience in the impact of mindfulness on life satisfaction and affect as indices of subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 93, 63–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.005
Baselmans, B. M. L., & Bartels, M. (2018). A genetic perspective on the relationship between eudaimonic –and hedonic well-being. Scientific Reports, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-32638-1
de Vries, L. P., Baselmans, B. M. L., Luykx, J. J., de Zeeuw, E. L., Minică, C., de Geus, E. J. C., Vinkers, C. H., & Bartels, M. (2021). Genetic evidence for a large overlap and potential bidirectional causal effects between resilience and well-being. Neurobiology of Stress, 14, 100315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100315
Demange, P. A., Malanchini, M., Mallard, T. T., Biroli, P., Cox, S. R., Grotzinger, A. D., Tucker-Drob, E. M., Abdellaoui, A., Arseneault, L., van Bergen, E., Boomsma, D. I., Caspi, A., Corcoran, D. L., Domingue, B. W., Harris, K. M., Ip, H. F., Mitchell, C., Moffitt, T. E., Poulton, R., … Nivard, M. G. (2021). Investigating the genetic architecture of noncognitive skills using GWAS-by-subtraction. Nature Genetics. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-020-00754-2
Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Oishi, S. (2018). Advances and Open Questions in the Science of Subjective Well-Being. Collabra: Psychology, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.115
Diener, E., Pressman, S. D., Hunter, J., & Delgadillo-Chase, D. (2017). If, Why, and When Subjective Well-Being Influences Health, and Future Needed Research. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 9(2), 133–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12090
Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What Good Are Positive Emotions in Crises? A Prospective Study of Resilience and Emotions Following the Terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 365. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.365
Galatzer-Levy, I. R., Huang, S. H., & Bonanno, G. A. (2018). Trajectories of resilience and dysfunction following potential trauma: A review and statistical evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 63, 41–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.05.008
Greenspoon, P. J., & Saklofske, D. H. (2001). Toward an integration of subjective well-being and psychopathology. Social Indicators Research, 54(1), 81–108. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007219227883
Hu, T., Zhang, D., & Wang, J. (2015). A meta-analysis of the trait resilience and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.039
Rohrer, J. M., & Lucas, R. E. (2020). Causal Effects of Well-Being on Health : It ’ s Complicated. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/wgbe4
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
Satici, S. A. (2016). Psychological vulnerability, resilience, and subjective well-being: The mediating role of hope. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, 102, 68–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.057
Steptoe, A. (2019). Happiness and Health. Annual Review of Public Health, 40, 339–359. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-044150
Van der Werff, S. J. A., Pannekoek, J. N., Veer, I. M., van Tol, M. J., Aleman, A., Veltman, D. J., Zitman, F. G., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., Elzinga, B. M., & van der Wee, N. J. A. (2013). Resilience to childhood maltreatment is associated with increased resting-state functional connectivity of the salience network with the lingual gyrus. Child Abuse and Neglect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.07.008
van Harmelen, A.-L., Blakemore, S. J., Goodyer, I. M., & Kievit, R. A. (2020). The Interplay Between Adolescent Friendship Quality and Resilient Functioning Following Childhood and Adolescent Adversity. Adversity and Resilience Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-020-00027-1
World Health Organization. (2005). Promoting Mental Health: Concepts, Emerging Evidence, Practice.
Zaninotto, P., & Steptoe, A. (2019). English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Encyclopedia of Gerontology and Population Aging. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69892-2_335-1

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